Guide to Rabbit Diseases and Vaccinations
1. Introduction
Understanding animal health is fundamental to maintaining any species that humans keep safely and humanely. Rabbits have some unique aspects to their basic husbandry. Knowing these and how to protect pet rabbits from common health problems is key to giving them the long, happy, and healthy life that we all want for our pets. Rabbits are prey animals, and in the wild, their main defense is to avoid showing any signs of being unwell. Unfortunately, their overall quality of life can be seriously affected if they are in any pain or discomfort. Pet rabbits need a good understanding of rabbit biology, housing, and diet, and a watchful eye to ensure that health problems can be recognized early, and therefore treatment can be started that is most likely to succeed.
Pet rabbits need to be well cared for if they are to live long and healthy lives. There are some very common health problems in rabbits that are seen by veterinary surgeons in practice. Although rabbits are a prey species, they have been domesticated for over 1,000 years, and it is not acceptable to take a hands-off approach to their health and welfare. A lot has been written about pet rabbits; much of it is wrong or out of date. There is also a lot of confusion between wild and domestic rabbits and also between rabbits and other domestic species like dogs and cats. Rabbit disease needs to be understood in the context of rabbit biology. Rabbit biology is one that is very different from humans and other domestic species. Therefore, information and approaches that work well for dogs, cats, and horses are most likely to be unhelpful when applied in a way to rabbits. It is essential that anyone with an interest in rabbits has an understanding of their basic needs, their biology, and common health problems. Only then will treatments, preventative medicine strategies (where appropriate), and husbandry regimes be species-specific and optimized to support the healthiest rabbit.
1.1. Importance of Rabbit Health
When it comes to pet rabbits, one of the most important aspects of their well-being is maintaining good health. Ensuring the good health of your rabbit is crucial for a number of reasons. Firstly, no pet owner likes to see their charges looking miserable and worried, and there’s no doubt in the world of pet keeping that happy pets are healthy and active ones. They’ll be brighter, fitter, and more accepting of the touch of other family members, including children. Secondly, pet rabbits have the potential to develop a range of different diseases, many of which can be fatal. They have a very small body size for a prey species, and this means they’re pretty delicate. Any factor that reduces resistance to diseases, such as a poor diet or chronic stress, can result in an animal that harbors numerous silent infections that, one day, will stagger into clinical view alongside problems like tooth-root issues and digestive disorders. This is why it has been noted that proper care and attention are essential for their survival.
It is beyond the scope of this resource to detail all the possible health problems that rabbits can develop, as a complete list would run into hundreds of pages. However, a brief description of some of the most common problems is a good place to start, as well as a brief examination of what factors can affect the health of rabbits. The most common rabbit health problems include difficulties with their digestive system, dental issues, respiratory diseases, and leg and foot problems. A good diet suitable for rabbits, a healthy environment, and the absence of obesity will help rabbits to avoid these issues. It’s best to take your house rabbit to the veterinarian for regular check-ups. If you pay attention to your rabbit’s behavior and notice significant changes – such as a lack of appetite or an obvious reduction in activity – consult a vet straight away. The ways to avoid or reduce the risk of developing any of these illnesses are manifold and include elements like understanding your rabbits and their needs, building a firm relationship with a good veterinarian, and employing good husbandry considerations with regard to feeding, housing, exercise, and mental stimulation.
In most cases, the number of years a rabbit lives will be directly proportional to the quality of care it receives. It is the caring aspect, the diligence, and the acceptance of this basic truth that undeniably separates the successful breeder from the negligent one. Prevention is better than a cure, as most rabbit breeders, pet buyers, and keepers know. The fact is they will all agree on the fact that about 50% of rabbits above 3-4 months of age will die of disease sooner or later in their life either as a direct cause or as an extra complication to problems arising.
1.2. Basic Anatomy and Physiology of Rabbits
Review of Basic Anatomy and Physiology of Rabbits
Rabbits are known as prey species, which means they are at the lower end of the food chain. As a result, they have evolved to be alert and mobile mammals with the ability to react quickly to a threat.Rabbits are herbivorous animals with a digestive system that is simply adapted to take a seasonal diet and turn it into readily accessible food sources. Like rodents, they have long skulls and one pair of incisors on each jawbone. The base of this group of teeth has a set of lagomorphs.Some special features of rabbit physiology and anatomy that may affect health issues include:
- Rabbits are obligate nasal breathers. Upper respiratory tract infections and swollen dental roots may block the primary and secondary airways into the lungs and the tear duct, making the rabbit an obligatory mouth breather and snorter. - They have a monogastric stomach similar to guinea pigs. They can secrete gastric acid for long periods and produce copious amounts of saliva. - Rabbits do not vomit. The pylorus is usually shut during fetal life, so it cannot release food the other way. - Gastrointestinal mobility is significantly reduced in rabbits. They have a posteriorly situated colon with pronounced gut flora and soft stercobilin feces. Fermentation occurs throughout the intestine for many different kinds of bacteria, in contrast to the cecal cycle of guinea pigs. Rapid changes in feed are most likely to cause digestion problems in rabbits, such as watery feces or bloat due to gas formation.
2. Common Rabbit Diseases
Rabbit owners can unwittingly find their pets suffering from infectious diseases because of a lack of information on healthy and hygienic feeding. Infectious agents cause diseases in two main ways: infections that spread directly from rabbit to rabbit, and infections passed from one rabbit to another, or because of clostridium present in the gastrointestinal system. Spore forms appear directly in polluted areas and are a source of infection accordingly. The rabbit has been shown to be able to survive three years on the pasture and two years in the rabbit barn. Each disease has different symptoms and should be treated at this stage. The infection is transmitted from an infected rabbit to the female rabbit during mating, and infections are transmitted from the female rabbit to the offspring during pregnancy.
Many viral, bacterial, and parasitic diseases occur in rabbits. Each of these diseases occurs in different ways, and it is up to us to raise the level of knowledge we have in this direction, as it will directly affect the welfare of rabbits. Diseases caused by different viruses in the immune system can cause anorexia, decreased growth performance, and decreased fertility. There are no typical symptoms seen in viral infections; rabbits continuously give birth to dead offspring because of infections and rhinotracheitis. Parasitic diseases are the accumulation of living organisms in the body. The direct source of diseases is these living creatures. Symptoms such as foul odor, wounds, weakness, roughness of fur, itching, and so on are caused by parasitic diseases. Rabbits may not show symptoms in the early stages of the disease, and they should be controlled by the veterinarian in case of doubt, as it would lead to a prolonged treatment period. Early diagnosis will accelerate treatment. It is necessary to pay attention to malignant infections and malignant ears, as these two threats can lead to the death of the rabbit. It should be checked regularly, at least once a month. None of the treatments applied in case of disease will be beneficial if healthy and accurate feeding is not ensured. In addition to vaccines for preventive purposes, meticulous cleaning of the environment and vaccination are important. High temperatures can cause clostridial disease in rabbits. In case of sudden death of a rabbit, the gut should be opened and checked immediately. An inflamed area in the bowel will be the clearest symptom of an early diagnosis.
2.1. Viral Diseases
Aside from the snuffles and E. cuniculi, most other diseases of rabbits are viral. Viral infections kill rabbits very quickly and, at the very least, they will be long-term carriers. Because rabbits are so susceptible to viruses, it is worth protecting them with a vaccination. Two main viral infections are rabbit hemorrhagic disease and myxomatosis. Rabbit hemorrhagic disease is the most serious rabbit disease to strike rabbits in the UK since myxomatosis. Areas of particular risk are in the South West: Dorset, Devon, Cornwall, Somerset, and also Cumbria. The virus is very small and very hardy, and can survive on clothing, the soles of shoes, and in the environment for long periods of time. Humans can carry the virus on themselves after contact with infected rabbits and pass the virus to other rabbits they come into contact with. Myxomatosis is a more serious disease in the UK than VHD. In the UK, the high prevalence of fleas that transmit myxomatosis means that it is important to vaccinate. Both viruses can be spread from one rabbit to another. Owners can unwittingly carry and spread infected fleas from one rabbit to another, but the diseases themselves do not affect humans. When rabbits catch viral diseases, they will often show a number of signs, although symptoms depend to some extent on the strain of the virus, the age, and the immunity status of the rabbit. Rabbits often become lethargic, anorexic, show a high fever, develop breathing difficulties, have pus-filled eyes, and discharge from the nose and mouth. However, even if antibiotics are given, affected rabbits often fail to get better, and they may go on to die within 30 hours of showing their first signs of illness. VHD can cause 80-100% mortality. Myxomatosis can also cause high levels of fatalities. Since none of these diseases have effective treatment once a rabbit is affected, prevention, i.e., vaccination, is the best measure. A vaccination is available that protects rabbits against myxomatosis and rabbit hemorrhagic disease.
2.2. Bacterial Diseases
Bacterial diseases can have a significant effect on rabbit health. The most common bacteria causing infections are Bordetella bronchiseptica, Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp., and many others that can be part of the hygienic and clinical pathogens. The quality and age of the rabbit often define the susceptibility of different rabbits to the infections mentioned above. Pasteurellosis is the most widespread bacteria-caused infection. E. coli exacerbates the symptoms of other bacterial infections, and therefore co-culture can illustrate high mortality in the rabbitry. The area should be kept environmentally clean, and all litter materials should be changed. Besides that, pet owners should have a vaccine.
The bacteria mentioned above are mostly isolated within wild rabbits, but some of them have been reported in pet rabbits. Pasteurellosis can be acute or chronic. It is transmitted horizontally and from mother to offspring. The rabbit is infected by direct contact with the pathogen, ingestion, or inhaling air contaminated with the bacteria. Clinical signs include nasal discharge and audible respiratory sounds. Stress often exacerbates the disease. Antibiotics prescribed by a veterinarian may help to treat infected rabbits. However, in our case, we found that a certain treatment is not effective in a clinical case, although another treatment is sensitive. That means it is better to treat the pet rabbit based on laboratory tests such as antibiotic sensitivity. The pet owner should consult with a veterinarian.
2.3. Parasitic Diseases
Parasites are a common group of living organisms that can be found inside or on the body of a wide range of hosts. The main parasites found on or in rabbits include fleas, ticks, and intestinal worms. Fleas and ticks can be seen on the skin or fur of the rabbits, while intestinal worms cannot be seen by the naked eye. All parasites carry out a life cycle with inanimate material in the environment or within the gastrointestinal tract of the animals. When the parasitic populations reach a high level and spread throughout the skin or in the systemic circulation, the affected rabbits will show different signs and symptoms of disease based on the affected site. Fleas, for example, can cause blood loss, anemia, irritation, or itching. Ticks can cause systemic illness and skin damage. Intestinal worms can cause loss of appetite, chronic weight loss, rough hair coat, depression, rectal prolapse, and diarrhea. The excretion of the tapeworm segments in the feces is specific for digestive cestodiasis infection in rabbits. Several common parasitic infections in rabbits are oxyuriasis, coccidiosis, eimeriosis, and taeniasis, among others. Pet health management should consist of periodic veterinary visits for thorough physical examinations and prophylactic medicine, such as vaccinations, flea control, and deworming, as advised by the veterinarian.
Rabbits are clean animals. They do not roll around in their own or other animals' feces like dogs, and they do not eat or drink their own or other animals' urine or excreta. Transmission of the parasites from an infested to a non-infested rabbit generally arises by direct contact or indirect contact with the environment, such as rabbit farm equipment, rabbit cages, water, feed, hay sources, and humans as well. Hygiene and good management practices are important to be applied to prevent and reduce parasite infestation in many animals. We know that it is not always practical to provide regular grooming to longhaired breeds. Just keep an eye on them, and when you notice excessive scratching, consider having the rabbit groomed.
3. Preventative Measures
Maintaining the cognitive health status of rabbits during and after antibiotic therapy is crucial for the successful recovery of infected individuals. Good preventive husbandry is often very successful in keeping illnesses at bay, and vaccination plays an important role in this. Vaccination works against diseases that the individual has not yet encountered so that its immune system is primed to cope well with the actual infectious agent. Proper vaccination, based on long-standing principles and many years of experience, can help keep your pet rabbits healthy. The immunity rabbits receive from their mothers decreases in the period of 6 to 9 weeks, and then they become susceptible to wild rabbit diseases. Vaccines contain either live virus or bacteria that have been damaged so that they cannot cause actual disease. They stimulate the immune system of the individual being vaccinated to react and produce antibodies; if the same virus or bacteria enter the body, the antibodies will bind to them and help the rabbit deal with them. A primary vaccination program provides a solid base for immunity, which is further maintained by regular top-ups. Vaccinations work by preparing the rabbit’s immune system in case it encounters the actual pathogen. Without regular booster vaccinations, this immunity would decrease, potentially leaving the rabbit susceptible to disease. Other ways of controlling disease in your rabbit include an excellent diet essential for maintaining a well-functioning immune system to help fight off infections, regularly cleaning your rabbits' living quarters, and having your rabbits' health checked at least once every year by your vet.
3.1. Importance of Vaccination
Vaccination is a critical part of rabbit health and welfare management. When administered, vaccines trigger the rabbit's natural defense mechanisms to create immunity to specific diseases. Once a vaccination has been given, the rabbit's immune system naturally resists infection if it comes into contact with the disease. Many methods are utilized to provide vaccinations; the method used will depend upon the vaccine's composition, the illness it protects against, and the method in which the rabbit's immune mechanism works. Vaccines are available to guard against a variety of highly dangerous diseases like viruses that can spread quickly throughout rabbitries with devastating consequences. Vaccination is a valid disease control option if there is a significant disease outbreak in the region where the rabbit lives.
Vaccines are part of an effective disease control strategy and work well when paired with effective biosecurity and management practices. Time is critical when it comes to vaccinations for pet rabbits. It is common for a pet rabbit to receive a combined vaccination for Myxomatosis and Viral Hemorrhagic Disease yearly starting from the age of 5 to 12 weeks. Keeping on top of your rabbit's vaccinations with yearly boosters is crucial. If your rabbit misses a yearly booster, there is a risk that he or she may be at risk for the next bout of the disease. It's crucial to keep in mind that even general handling or contact with other animals can trigger disease. The better the clinical handling of the vaccinated rabbit is, the better. Vets are the greatest source of information and knowledge about vaccination for pet rabbits. Contact your veterinarian to discuss the vaccination protocol appropriate for your rabbit's circumstances. Talk to your veterinarian about what's best for the pet rabbit.
3.2. Vaccination Schedule for Rabbits
The two most commonly used vaccines for rabbits are the myxomatosis vaccine and the RHD-VHD vaccine. Myxomatosis is an infection caused by a virus that results in swellings, or myxomas, in the skin and high fevers. In most cases, myxomatosis is fatal. The recommended schedule for the myxomatosis vaccine is an initial vaccination at 5-6 weeks of age, with a booster vaccination given at 9 weeks of age. From this age, we recommend that adult rabbits be vaccinated against myxomatosis every 6 months. The RHD-VHD vaccine protects rabbits from two strains of the Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease Virus. The disease causes sudden death in adult rabbits, the symptoms of which are a fever frequently followed by nosebleeds. Death occurs within days of the first symptoms despite treatment. The vaccine is not a live virus vaccine, so there is no risk of infection. The first vaccination can be given at 4-5 weeks of age, with a second booster vaccination 3 weeks later. From this age, adult rabbits should be vaccinated every year to maintain coverage.
Both of these vaccines are essential in creating herd immunity and slowing the spread of disease. A study found that approximately 1% of vaccinated adult rabbits were diagnosed with myxomatosis or RHD, compared to 24% of rabbits that were presented with no record of vaccination. Likewise, in a study, adult rabbits died in 19% of cases in which RHD was suspected, compared to 5% in rabbits that were vaccinated. Those unable to vaccinate unfortunately face a significantly higher risk. Some rabbits are unable to receive vaccines for health reasons. There are several successful vaccines currently used throughout the world and many more being tested as researchers look into new strains.
3.3. Myxomatosis Vaccine
Myxomatosis is a common and highly infectious disease among rabbits. It is one of the greatest causes of death in these animals, and vaccination is recommended to prevent the disease. Myxomatosis causes a variety of symptoms, including swelling, conjunctivitis, itching, lethargy, and chronic skin problems. Indeed, if infected by a fly or flea, its transmission vector, myxomatosis is almost 100% fatal in certain countries. In the early period, myxomatosis fever became a serious problem for many farmers and resulted in extensive damage. It is the enemy of rabbit breeding. Therefore, we must choose safe, efficient, low-cost vaccines and drugs to carry out vaccination.
Application scope of vaccine Age: weaned rabbits can be immunized for 35 days; the effect is the best. Immunity interval: after the initial immunization, the interval is 28 to 35 days. Revaccination dose: two oral drops of 4 drops, or subcutaneous injections of 0.3 milliliters of saline. Legislation requires someone to enter the vaccine as a veterinary drug for inoculation; for a moment, do not do quarantine without other health certificate entry requirements dependent on countries from rabies and Myxomatosis. Record the facts as veterinary mapping expertise drug, always follow the veterinary control drug project. The vaccine may cause reactions such as localized nodulation and off-color, which are not harmful to the overall situation and actually indicate that the vaccine has been effective, which is the lesion left after the antigen has been removed. Record-keeping: Rabbits must record vaccination in the animals' Bible. Vaccination records are also required for a rabbit census and breeding health record to offset the impacts of future damage. It is recommended to carry rabbits in a car with 4 rabbits and a trolley, with commercial express delivery. The immunogenic vaccine against myxomatosis reduced the incidence of the disease by 30 percentage points. We hope that every rabbit farm will receive and use the vaccine as usual. The benefits of this vaccine—animal benefits and energy-drug benefits—have been developed into an efficient production and efficient animal vaccine for farm rabbits.
3.4. Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease (RHD) Vaccine
Table of Contents
RHDV Etiology and Epidemiological Significance
Characteristics of the RHDV Vaccine
RHD is a highly contagious hemorrhagic disease caused by a calicivirus. RHDV has a high resistance to the environment and can survive in frozen rabbit meat or in the open space of rabbit breeding facilities. The incidence of the disease is suddenly high and has a low duration of epidemic. The illness develops slowly with the following rapid progression, leading to death. Although rabbits of all ages are susceptible, young rabbits are the most susceptible, especially between 30-60 days, with high morbidity and mortality. In countries with outbreaks of rabbit hemorrhagic fever, if prevention and control measures are discontinued, the high mortality in the natural epidemic areas can be devastating. Domestic rabbits affected by RHDV can cause substantial losses to rabbit farmers. Although available vaccines can be used to prevent RHD, because most of the natural epidemic area rabbits are found in grasslands, large-scale, free-range, and unmanaged rabbits, immuno-free vaccines cannot establish herd immunity scenarios. Therefore, vaccination against RHD is necessary in the natural incidence areas.
The active ingredients are inactivated rabbit RHDV and aluminum hydroxide gel. The majority of rabbits began to show apparent levels of antibodies after the first injection, reaching the highest neutralizing antibody levels after the third dose. After 6 months, rabbits aged 23-24 and prepartum rabbits had stable ferritin antibody levels. The vaccine provides strong and durable immunity after 1-2 doses. If administered repeatedly, this can lead to reduced efficacy, a shorter duration of protection, and a shortened vaccination interval. After the immune security period, no adverse effects were found in rabbits. Therefore, it is recommended to vaccinate every 6 months to prevent the decline of continuous antibody levels. It can be used to vaccinate rabbits 30 days old or older. Rabbits must be vaccinated one month before delivery. The immunity of the rabbit can be maintained continuously, and reduced ferritin immunization can lead to poor results. Furthermore, the erosion of immunity can lead to high proliferation of rabbits in natural epidemic areas. Clinically, after 10 days of being immunized, antibodies may not be generated; in high reproductive performance settings, such as large rabbit farms, the lack of food can induce stress, reducing resistance. Immunogenic surrounding natural environments can lead to low rabbit production, especially in farms with fewer rabbits. If prevention efforts fail, this can cause uncontrollable damage to healthy rabbits, potentially eradicating herds that have been carefully bred for a long time, leading to the collapse of entire households. It is recommended to continue immunization after 6 months. Isolated rabbits should be vaccinated at a dilution limit of once a month. The vaccine needs to be fully shaken before use!
4. Factors Influencing Vaccine Schedule
Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease (RHD) Vaccine
Characteristics of the RHDV Vaccine
Many factors can influence when, how often, or if a rabbit should be vaccinated. One of the most important is life stage. As rabbits move through juvenile, adult, and senior life stages, their physical status changes and their immune system undergoes readjustments. This may influence whether or not, or at what age, they are able to respond to vaccination or may impact the duration that immunity is likely to last. Accordingly, vaccination advice is included in guidelines. Additionally, other health issues are common in older rabbits. These can also impact the vaccination requirements for this group of animals, as they may have a reduced ability to respond to their vaccination. Other important factors to consider include whether a rabbit’s health status is known or unknown, and whether they are at particular risk of infectious diseases based on the environmental risks they face. These can include new arrivals, incubation for shows or competitions, or those living in or in contact with rabbits from high-risk environments. In some circumstances, breed-specific vulnerabilities may also be relevant.
Therefore, the age, sex, life stage, existing health status, previous vaccination history, vaccination protocols, and the environment and risk factors a rabbit experiences should all be considered when developing a rabbit-specific vaccination schedule in consultation between the owner and their veterinarian. Ideally, this plan goes onto a vet card so that it can be easily communicated to every vet who examines the rabbit. Boarding kennels or new owners also have a reference document as part of the health records. An individual Health Plan is the best precaution against infectious diseases suited to the individual and hence the best foundation for ongoing health care.
4.1. Age and Life Stage of the Rabbit
As with human medicine, vaccines protect the rabbit. Yet the age of the rabbit and the life stage will greatly affect the vaccination recommendations. This section categorizes the rabbits into kits, adults, and seniors with specific recommendations regarding the vaccines and when the vaccine should be administered. Guidelines about vaccinating include when to start the vaccination process to ensure that immunity is established before the rabbit is considered at risk of diseases. Delaying the vaccine in younger rabbits increases the chance of not producing an immune response if they are already exposed to the virus. Older rabbits require vaccinations according to their overall health status. The assessment of vaccination status should be part of the annual health assessment of rabbits. This will ensure that each rabbit receives the appropriate vaccines at the right time for each stage of life.
Kits should receive their first vaccination between 3 and 5 weeks of age. These vaccines typically contain a pasteurella vaccine; estrogenesia (a two-strain version of the homologous vaccine); and 1 or 2 RHD vaccines. The vaccinated team will have a second set of RHD vaccines at 8-10 weeks of age. This is to ensure that young rabbits are vaccinated from the moment they start eating more solids and are removed from the protection of the nursing mother and her milk. Adult rabbits should be vaccinated with infections outside rabbits and if they are housed in rescue, breeding, or rain rabbits, the vaccine should contain the RHDV2. The suggested age for vaccinations is 8-12 weeks as the annual booster. The rationale is that adult rabbits may require this immunity support more often in some circumstances, added to their exposure to the risk of adverse weather conditions, mating with new rabbits, and the risks of rescue rabbits with incomplete histories and pre-existing health status.4. Designing an Effective Vaccination Schedule
5. Core Vaccines for Rabbits
In rabbits, our vaccination schedule is divided between core and non-core vaccines. While non-core vaccines are dependent on your rabbit's risk of exposure to certain pathogens or diseases, core vaccines are recommended for all rabbits, regardless of their lifestyle, age, or housing situation. These core vaccines are essential for every rabbit to receive for the prevention of fatal infectious diseases.
Rabbit Viral Haemorrhagic Disease 2 (VHD2) is now a core part of our ethical and evidence-based vaccination recommendations for rabbits. Prevention of Rabbit Viral Haemorrhagic Disease 1 (VHD1) via vaccination against the original viral outbreak strains is also considered a core part of our ethical and evidence-based vaccination recommendations to ensure rabbit welfare and effective prevention against this severe fatal infectious disease. We now offer core multi-strain VHD1 vaccines which protect pet rabbits from disease caused by vaccination of three specific VHD1 variants. The three components each protect against one of the key VHD1 outbreak parental or respiratory disease-causing strains. These VHD1 vaccines also all include Rabbit Viral Haemorrhagic Disease 2 (VHD2) protection. Option 3 of our vaccination protocol includes a booster vaccination at 4 to 5 weeks following vaccination with the primary vaccine.
Core vaccines are preventive for life-threatening diseases and should be given to rabbits in any type of environment and during most times of the year. The exception to this is if your rabbits have already been vaccinated and we are seeing high serological conversion rates achieved with drug antibiotic treatments; then a shorter grace period before the next vaccine may be acceptable. When multi-rabbit and multi-species owners already have rabbits at home, the entire rabbit population will need to be vaccinated, all at the same time, every year. All new rabbits need to be vaccinated and settled at home before we invite new rabbits for further vaccination the following year. A single rabbit who is never given a vaccine does not need to be vaccinated before settling in at home if no other rabbit will be introduced into that home until afterwards.
5.1. Viral Hemorrhagic Disease (VHD) Vaccine
Over the years, advancements within the veterinary field have allowed for the creation of a vaccination to protect against Viral Hemorrhagic Disease, known as VHD. This disease is more likely to shorten the life of a rabbit than to be fatal, and in the event of an outbreak on a property, hundreds or thousands of animals could be affected. New advances within the veterinary industry have allowed for protection against two strains of Viral Hemorrhagic Disease. The VHD vaccine is the most vital vaccine available to pet rabbit owners and should be the first vaccine given. Vaccination should always take place annually, with two vaccinations given over a two-week period accompanied by an annual health check. Young rabbits can be vaccinated as early as five weeks of age, with a second vaccine due within two to four weeks of the first.
Viral Hemorrhagic Disease causes a severe and often fatal condition that infects wild and pet rabbits. This disease is characterized by conjunctivitis, reduced feed intake, fever, bleeding from body orifices, an increase in the discharge of soft feces, and eventual death. The virus can be spread through contact with a carrier, airborne spread, contaminated food and water, contaminated materials and machinery, clothing, and footwear. In the case of an outbreak, hundreds of rabbits may need to be euthanized at a time. Annual vaccination is recommended to build up immunity to both common VHD strains. Most rabbits are between eight to ten weeks of age when first taken to their vet, so vaccination for the VHD can be administered at the first visit. Remember that when it comes to protecting an animal or human from a deadly disease, it only makes sense to start with the fatal diseases first.
6. Non-Core Vaccines for Rabbits
In contrast to core vaccines, non-core vaccines are immunizations that are classified as optional based on association with specific circumstances or risk factors. Geographic distribution might make a non-core vaccine important somewhere in the world but not necessary in a different location. Lifestyle choices will also guide a recommendation. Not all pet rabbits need all the vaccines; the spread of disease has to be there to necessitate a vaccine. Rabbits traveling to rabbit shows in a semi-permanent way will be at more risk in terms of exposure than rabbits that live in a contained environment. Rabbits with certain medical conditions will carry a more profound risk of severe reaction to the disease due to their conditions or injuries and, therefore, will be the ones to consider being vaccinated with as many or all of the non-core vaccines as possible, given the condition to be treated. Thus, seeing clients in a multi-modal pet versus performance animal practice setting can and will enhance the willingness to subscribe to this rationale.
Given that, the following vaccines are considered non-core; while this inclusion in the non-core category might be efficacious, utilizing it is going to hinge on the individual rabbit and its lifestyle, their significant risks around them, and where they live and go. Non-core vaccines definitely carry less generalizable application and, consequently, are going to be discussed in less detail than historically has been the case or would be expected. Interactions with core vaccines exhibit a different type of awareness. If proper immune responses are not achieved to a core vaccine when the rabbit receives a non-core or any other vaccines simultaneously, is the situation different than if it were a core vaccine on board and then a non-core were administered later? Are core-to-core only needed amounts of the original core component to be considered for revaccination? Could revaccinating every few weeks with increasing amounts of core vaccine potentially support immunization in these rabbits with non-core vaccines and protect them once a proper immune response to the core vaccine has been achieved, but only if they are not immunized with a monovalent strain vaccine after the proper immune response? These questions need to be addressed in research on non-core vaccines.
6.1. Pasteurella multocida Vaccine
Rationale: Establishment of a significant non-core vaccination intended for rabbits. Disease/Condition: Pasteurellosis is widespread among domestic rabbits. This disease can be caused by P. multocida, a bacillus bacterium that is part of the normal flora of the upper respiratory tract in rabbits and does not cause any symptoms in about 70% to 80% of cases. Health Implication: Pasteurella multocida causes complex wounds, respiratory infections including secondary pneumonia, ophthalmic conditions, genital conditions, abscesses, bone infections, and other chronic forms in new, young rabbits. Efficacy of the Vaccination: Studies show that the vaccine is over 80% effective and between 60% and 75% protective, according to the manufacturer. Indications for the Vaccination: The vaccine is recommended in the following cases: in environments where animals and rabbits mix outside; available in groups with a rabbit, if the environmental index results indicate Pasteurella; already the individual assessment of the veterinarian and possibly the associated blood test for a rabbit; and for rabbits that have a profile associated with an increased risk of experiencing clinical signs if infected. The vaccine may be indicated for low-risk herds if the farm has rabbits with a profile associated with a moderate to high risk of experiencing illness if infected, which mainly includes testing positive for oropharyngeal samples from Pasteurella-agent PCR and possibly associated tests. Predisposing Factors to Serious Infection: Infection can lead to more serious consequences in the following situations: presence of noble myxomatosis of the rabbit. Anesthetized myself with high doses of anesthetics. Animal stress conditions. Conditions of a herd at high rate of type: busy environment with other animals, high population density or other suboptimal environmental or breeding conditions, irregular, high or recent deworming, unbalanced diet, second health problem, all factors. The risk of a serious infection should always be individually evaluated by the veterinarian. Any of these criteria are not sufficient for diagnosis of the presence of P. multocida. M1 was also proven to have good speed and interest in the European rabbit. However, although it is logical and rational to vaccinate in this case, it should actually be evaluated by the veterinarian. Interest and Risk of Vaccination against P. multocida: The vaccine can also be taken on an individual basis for rabbits meeting the conditions for breeders or novice rabbits listed, but tests already exist and are likely to attract P. multocida. A specific condition of Pasteurella tests is an indication of disease specificity for the rabbit. Interest is determined through benefit discussions with technical support. The risk of the protocol in the European rabbit is low due to the lack of vaccine-active viruses. It is impossible to state that rabbits are vaccine-free. Although the risk of post-vaccination diseases is low, considering the low benefit in one dam, it is reasonable to recommend the vaccine.
7. Vaccination Schedule for Rabbits
Establishing a vaccination schedule for rabbits is extremely important in order to ensure the appropriate and effective times for vaccine administration. There are core and non-core vaccines available for rabbits, both of which protect them against various life-threatening diseases. A veterinarian specializing in small mammals can design a tailored vaccination plan for pet rabbits. The vaccination schedule for rabbits recommends their first vaccines at six weeks and annual boosters scheduled according to the vaccine product label or once yearly. Monitoring a rabbit’s vaccine history is also important to ensure appropriate vaccinations are completed on time. Keep a copy of the written immunization history. If you have moved to a different veterinary practice, provide a copy to your new or follow-up veterinarian. Keep the record up to date. By tracking past or upcoming vaccinations, age-appropriate booster shots can be administered in a timely manner. Changes in regular health conditions of a rabbit may warrant a change from the vaccination schedule. Changes in lifestyle, such as a transfer to a house where monthly gastrointestinal parasitic prevention is necessary, can cause a veterinarian to advise changes in the vaccination schedule. Identifying the proper vaccination protocol can be a complicated and time-consuming process. A professional healthcare provider will advise owners on the differences in vaccines, as well as those applicable to their pet. Vets, in particular, are dedicated to disease protection and improving the lives of all small animals. Rabbits are no different. By establishing a vaccination schedule for rabbits, veterinarians can ensure the safety and health of rabbits, reducing stress and increasing the quality of care.
7.1. Frequency and Timing of Vaccinations
Most rabbits are vaccinated annually as part of their health check, although there are situations where more frequent or less frequent vaccinations are recommended, along with non-core vaccines that can be given every six months. The scientific literature does not contain similar evidence on rabbits to enable evidence-based recommendations on how often a vaccine can be given and still provide protection; this advice is based on veterinary clinical judgment and bacterial disease treatment in other species, compared to other causes of mortality and morbidity in rabbits. Initially, rabbits are usually vaccinated twice with a specific time interval. If this is not followed, the course will need to be started again at the second vaccination. The recommended intervals as a timeframe for vaccinating most rabbits take into account the time needed to develop protective immunity. The ideal time to vaccinate rabbits is when immunity from vaccination has decreased, and their booster can be given before natural exposure to the disease increases. Ideally, this means annual vaccination just before an outbreak. However, rabbits are not known to be exposed to disease in all breeds at all times. Rabbits that are exposed to any risk factors throughout the year, such as when an outbreak is highly contagious or where there are affected rabbits on a site, may require vaccination at any time. Individually, rabbits will need to be vaccinated if they are moved to a site with an active outbreak where they are not yet vaccinated.
8. Conclusion and Future Directions
The field of rabbit medicine is evolving rapidly, and the growing understanding of rabbit disease, pathophysiology, and pharmacokinetics underscores the importance of vaccination in preserving the health and welfare of this unique group of animals. There is currently no consensus on which commercially available rabbit vaccines are the most important to administer, how frequently to revaccinate rabbits, or who should receive vaccination. There is a great need for this information to be available to guide veterinarians and pet owners in making informed and considered decisions regarding vaccination. A single vaccination for all does not appear to be protective against all common rabbit diseases, and not all healthy rabbits need to be vaccinated against the available diseases. A few insights may be drawn from the information that is available. Vaccination is important to preventing RHD in rabbits, and this may be a vaccination that, if administered correctly, need not be repeated annually. The vaccination against Myxomatosis can be readily administered concurrently with the vaccine containing the RHD component with no interaction between the vaccines. When newer or more ideally formulated vaccines against M. pachydermatis, Streptococcus, and Pasteurella become available, they may have a considerable impact on the management of rabbits.
Future development of vaccination practice may focus on the consequences of the immune responses achieved. The longevity and nature of the immune response vary between rabbits, and subclinical disease may be prevented with vaccination. Planning will need to take into account newly proven vaccination regimes, newer and better vaccines, and potentially morbidity associated with vaccination. The four key factors necessary to produce good vaccination programs include guidance passed on to rabbit owners by education for veterinarians and pet supply companies. Innovative research concerning vaccine use, development, efficacy, and safety is essential. We hope that the more widespread availability of information will result in vaccination schedules that improve rabbit health and survival. Based on vaccine efficacy, duration of immunity, and the impact of the vaccine on disease management, the recommendations may need adapting, and this should be relayed at the time of vaccination.
9. Treatment Options for Rabbit Diseases
Pet rabbit owners are faced with two main concerns when it comes to the health of their pet: how to treat them when they are ill or injured and what to do to prevent these diseases and conditions from occurring. A veterinarian is always needed to properly diagnose and treat a sick rabbit. However, the fact that owners can learn about the types of treatments available to treat, cure, and prevent rabbit diseases and infections can help guide the caregivers to the closest veterinarian. Most diseases or infections in pet rabbits can be treated and cured through the use of medications, antibiotics, or other treatment options under the supervision of a professional veterinarian. However, keep in mind that the use of some medications can pose a risk to the rabbit's health and can interfere with the intestinal flora of the rabbit and reduce the population of beneficial bacteria in the body, which can cause bloating and gas. The effectiveness of any treatment option can sometimes be affected by the overall health of the rabbit, the breed of the rabbit, or any pre-existing condition, such as a weak immune system, prolonged stress, or a poor diet. Given these considerations, some treatment decisions can cause treatment options to be effective, not effective, or potentially more of a risk than a reward. For these reasons, it's important to seek medical advice and guidance from a licensed veterinarian before starting any treatment plan, including over-the-counter medications or pain relievers. A veterinarian can also advise you on the best ways to manage your rabbit's symptoms, including care at home in a safe and comfortable environment until a full veterinary examination. Surgery is a medical procedure in which the veterinarian makes an incision and intervenes in the body to return it to its previous or better state. Treatment options for rabbits that may be candidates for surgery may include medicine or medication while the animal can be closely monitored by qualified health professionals during surgery, recovery, and postoperative care. Surgery is best performed when the rabbit is prepared for surgery and operated on by someone with enough experience and knowledge about the specific surgical issue in the rabbit. All surgical procedures have associated risks, including those as part of general, regional, or local anesthesia, and are therefore recommended under the advice and care of a licensed veterinarian.
9.1. Medications and Antibiotics
Rabbits are prone to many different diseases or illnesses, and some of these will require prescription medications in order to treat and/or cure. Additionally, rabbits have fairly sensitive gastrointestinal systems, so medications need to be chosen with care. It is strongly advised to consult a rabbit-savvy veterinarian directly rather than trying to diagnose or treat an illness or injury on one's own. This way, accurate dosages and types of medications, along with other important treatment options, can be discussed.
If the veterinarian decides that a bacterial infection is present in a rabbit, the rabbit may be prescribed antibiotics in order to treat it. The most common bacterial infections that rabbits can get are infections of the respiratory system, which include the nose, throat, trachea, and lungs. Common antibiotics that might be chosen and used to treat a respiratory infection include enrofloxacin, fenbendazole/oxibendazole, and doxycycline.
It is important to dose the rabbit with the correct amount of medication, as listed by the veterinarian prescribing it. A too low dose of the medication can lead to the infection not being healed or to it recurring. Furthermore, if antibiotics are used incorrectly, bacteria can become resistant to that antibiotic, which can make diseases even trickier to treat. Drugs that a rabbit is allergic to can also cause major problems and in some cases have been severely toxic, even causing death. Also, although some medications may be tolerated in other types of animals, they can cause problems in rabbits because rabbits have a different type of digestive system than most other species do. Since medications can be so hard on a rabbit's digestive system, a person should never give medications or drugs not specifically prescribed by a veterinarian.
9.2. Surgical Interventions
Spaying or neutering is a very common surgery for rabbits, but there are other surgical interventions to correct or remove body parts, too. Dental problems are common in rabbits, and minor dental procedures to smooth down spikes, called points, can often be performed with the vast majority of rabbits awake. Sometimes a rabbit will get taller spurs, or points, which are small jagged edges in the teeth. Spurs can be painful and develop into deeper abscesses, so some spays or neuters, stop eating, and do not drink or produce stool sometimes need sedation to check out the back molars for such problems. Dental problems are usually a temporary fix; without proper management via diet and environmental conditions, spurs can recur and be more severe. The number of surgeries that can be performed should be done only after a complete blood work profile and examination is performed by your rabbit-knowledgeable veterinarian.
Owners also have to consider all the risks involved with any surgery. Anesthetic risk is higher in rabbits than in cats or dogs, but usually this possible complication is more than outweighed by the animal’s quality of life post-surgery. To minimize anesthetic risk, rabbits need to be fasted for 12 hours prior to the procedure to reduce the risk of harmful particles entering the airway or lungs. Prokinetics or metoclopramide can be given two hours before the procedure to increase gut motility and speed along digestion. An IV catheter needs to be placed to provide immediate access to injectable drugs; because rabbits have such small veins, they need special equipment and skills to properly determine sites for catheter placement, which include the ear vein or jugular vein. Oral meloxicam is a common NSAID given post-operatively for pain control. Administering a loading dose followed by a maintenance dose daily for 1-2 more days is the recommended protocol by rabbit-savvy veterinarians. Anecdotal sources suggest the use of meloxicam when mild to moderate pain is expected, as well as the near absence of any other drugs, such as NSAIDs, opioids, or local anesthetic drugs, or other drugs to reduce the potency of meloxicam, are not appropriate for use. Analgesia should be continued for a minimum of 3 days postoperatively. All rabbits should have postoperative monitoring, including eating, drinking, intravenous fluids, and normal posture. Recovery protocols depend on the establishment of the procedure, as well as preoperative protocols and instructions from the animal care staff at the institution where the rabbit is hospitalized. Post-surgical care includes, but is not limited to, a quiet and peaceful rehabilitation area away from animals that may stress or annoy the rabbit, a taste of favorite foods that may tempt the rabbit to eat after surgery and after the meloxicam dose has been given, fresh water, water-soluble vitamin supplements, syringe feeding if necessary, a regular feeding schedule, and a lot of attention and affection from the owner. In the case in which no adverse events occur prior to discharge, pain management includes a 3-day post-warning period, during which no oxfib is needed. Pain management should be used only as stated in the study findings on the basis of the information provided. In the case of no subsequent pain, the rabbit should be discharged from the hospital if the body temperature is normal, the rabbit has eaten (about two hours after eating has finished after surgery), and the heart rate is 160 beats per minute or less.
10. Conclusion and Future Developments
In conclusion, understanding rabbit health and disease is key to their care. Because of the many stressors and factors in our modern environment, rabbit disease management involves many steps. The most important steps are: understanding normal rabbit behavior and health; learning good rabbit husbandry; special care around rabbit breeding; active prevention against the deadliest infectious diseases; and taking sick rabbits promptly to a good rabbit veterinarian. Most of the time with pet rabbits, prevention is key, and the key to prevention is good education and professional veterinary care for rabbits.
Rabbit veterinarians are always learning more about rabbits and how to keep them healthy, with new diseases being discovered or old diseases changing all the time. There are lots of questions that rabbit veterinarians just don’t have all the answers to yet, and these areas need further research. Some areas include: what causes most enteritis; what are better treatments for enteritis other than fluids and antibiotics; how to help rabbits who are in pain, including post-operative pain; how we can body-score rabbits and what 'healthy' weights might be for different sizes, ages, and breeds of rabbits; what can stop rabbits from eating normally; how we can make rabbits who are on long-term treatments eat, drink, groom, and rest better in a hospital situation; and what is the best treatment for a lot of the fungal and microscopic parasites rabbits get? It’s also important for the public to learn about rabbit health so that they can learn about proper rabbit care, how to identify disease, and how to prevent their rabbits from catching a disease in the first place. This document is a start for that, and other similar public education efforts are greatly appreciated. At the end of the day, by staying informed and doing their best, rabbit owners can do a lot to prevent or help manage the many diseases that their pet rabbits may encounter at some point in their life. (McMahon & Wigham, 2020)(Vučinić et al.2024)(Magnus & McBride2022)(O'Neill et al.2020)(Forder et al., 2024)(Shapiro et al.2023)(Winnepenninckx2020)(Benato et al.2020)(Smith, 2022)(Shaw et al., 2020)
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